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specialized country

Толкование Перевод

1 specialized country

Дипломатический термин: страна со специализированной экономикой

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > specialized country
2 specialized country

страна со специализированной экономикой

Англо-русский дипломатический словарь > specialized country
3 specialized country

страна со специализированной экономикой

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > specialized country
4 country

n

страна, государство

- entry into the country

- self-esteem of a country

- countries in arrears

- align with a country

- be expelled from a foreign country

- appease a country

- make overtures to a country

- help a country to its feet

- break a country from a military alliance

- planned economy country

- Common Market country

- key-currency country

- receiving country

- high-income country

- donor country

- home country

- threshold country

- industrialized country

- surplus country

- market-economy country

- creditor country

- stricken country

- under-represented country

- newly industrialized countries

- developing consumer country

- dependent country

- land-locked country

- nonkey-currency country

- middle-income country

- non-sterling country

- Baltic countries

- shelf-locked country

- country of transit

- specialized country

- debtor country

- developing country

- inviting country

- holdout country

- recipient country

- ex-colonial country

- over-represented country

- advanced country

- participating country

- neutral country

- island country

- gold-standard country

- country of reception

- affected country

- country of refuge

- backward country

- country of temporary residence

- Nordic country

- deficit country

- grain-importing country

- abstaining country

- recession-ridden country

- nonaligned country

- upper-middle income country

- non-member country

- member country

- Green Europe country

- Commonwealth country

- host country

- country of residence

- poorest country

- mother country

- Comecon country

- independent country

- multilateral country

- British preference country

- grain-exporting country

- littoral country

- developing exporting country

- country of origin

- sterling country

- leading industrialized country

- agricultural country

- low-middle-income country

- reserve-currency country

- lending country

- energy-poor country

- capital-importing country

- sympathetic country

- nuclear country

- country of first asylum

- capital-exporting country

- flanking country

- low-income country

- developed country

- country of destination

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > country
5 training

( боевая) подготовка; обучение; тренировка; наведение

ship-based training (for assault landing) — десантная подготовка совместно с кораблями и плавучими средствами

skill qualification (support) training — специальная подготовка по ВУС

— ab initio training

— abbreviated basic training

— abbreviated training

— academic training

— accelerated training

— active duty training

— ad hoc training

— add-on training

— administrative training

— advanced battle training

— advanced combat training

— advanced individual training

— advanced infantry training

— advanced training

— advanced unit training

— adventure training

— adventurous training

— aerial weapons training

— affiliate training

— aggressor training

— air weapon training

— airborne training

— aircraft recognition training

— air-mission training

— airmobile training

— air-to-air training

— air-to-ground training

— alerting training

— all-around training

— allied training

— all-weather training

— amphibious training

— annual active duty training

— annual field training

— antigas training

— antiriot training

— applied training

— apprentice training

— armor recognition training

— armor training

— armory drill training

— artillery training

— assault training

— attache training

— basic combat training

— basic training

— battle sound training

— battle training

— battlefield training

— bayonet training

— biological training

— bombardment training

— boot training

— border crossing training

— branch immaterial training

— branch material training

— cadre training

— career enhancing training

— catch-up training

— censorship training

— centralized training

— character guidance training

— citizenship training

— civil affairs training

— civil preparedness training

— classroom training

— close quarter marksmanship training

— collective training

— combat crew training

— combat environment training

— combat launch operational readiness training

— combat training

— combatant training

— combat-like training

— combined training

— combined-arms river crossing training

— combined-arms training

— common entry-level training

— common skills training

— common-track training

— communications training

— competitive training

— concurrent training

— construction training

— continental US training

— continuation training

— continuous training

— conventional training

— conversion training

— cooperative training

— cost-effective training

— counseling training

— counterinsurgency training

— counterpart training

— crash training

— crew training

— cross country driving training

— cross utilization training

— cross-attached team training

— cross-MOS training

— crossover training

— cross-rate training

— cryptographic training

— CW training

— cycle training

— cyclic training

— daylight night training

— decentralized training

— defensive CW training

— defensive NBC training

— defensive training

— definitive training

— demolitions training

— desert survival training

— desert training

— detachment training

— developmental training

— diagnostic training

— disciplinary training

— dismounted training

— dissimilar air combat training

— drill training

— dry training

— dry-net training

— dual-role aircraft training

— during-combat training

— dynamic training

— educational training

— enlisted training

— enrichment training

— entry-level training

— environmental training

— equipment training

— evaluator training

— evasion and escape training

— EW training

— Expert Infantryman Badge training

— extra training

— familiarization training

— field combat training

— field sanitation training

— field technical training

— field training

— fieldcraft training

— first-aid training

— first-assignment specific training

— fitness training

— flight training

— flying training

— follow-on training

— force-on-force training

— foreign area training

— foreign weapons familiarization training

— foreign-exchange training

— formal unit training

— formalized training

— fragmented annual training

— full-time training

— garrison training

— gas defense training

— gas training

— general military training

— give training

— go-no-go training

— grenade training

— ground attack training

— gunnery-oriented training

— hand-on equipment training

— hand-to-hand combat training

— Higher Defence training

— home station training

— hospital returnee training

— identification training

— inactive duty training

— in-country training

— individual basic training

— individual technical training

— individual training

— indoor gunnery training

— induct for training

— infantry training

— initial entry training

— initial skill training

— initial training

— in-job training

— innovative training

— in-residence training

— in-service training

— institutional training

— intelligence training

— intensive basic military training

— interactive full crew training

— interim refresher training

— interoperability training

— inter-service training

— intertype training

— intra-unit training

— job instruction training

— joint airborne training

— joint service training

— jump training

— jungle training

— language training

— laser-instrumented training

— lateral training

— leadership training

— lead-in training

— line training

— live-fire training

— low-level training

— mandatory training

— maneuver training

— march training

— marksmanship training

— mechanical training

— medical training

— Military Assistance Grant Aid training

— military justice training

— military operations in built-up areas training

— military operations on urbanized terrain training

— military training

— militia training

— mine training

— minimum essential training

— minimum individual training

— missile firing training

— mission related training

— mobile forces training

— mobility training

— mobilization training

— module training

— morale and tradition training

— MOS training

— motivational training

— mountain training

— mounted training

— multiechelon training

— multilevel training

— multinational training

— multirole training

— multitrack training

— NATO-oriented training

— NBC training training

— new equipment training

— night training

— night vision training

— no-light aided eye training

— no-light unaided eye training

— nonmobilized status training

— nonresident instruction training

— novice training

— nuclear weapon training

— obligation training

— observer training

— obstacle training

— offensive combat training

— offensive CW training

— officers' training

— one station unit training

— one-on-one training

— one-track training

— on-the-ground training

— on-the-job training

— operational readiness training

— operational training

— opposed forces/threat training

— organizational effectiveness training

— organizational training

— orientation training

— out-of-camp training

— outside of continental US training

— overseas area training

— overseas deployment training

— overview training

— paid training

— paramilitary training

— part time training

— phased training

— physical readiness training

— position specific training

— post-cycle training

— post-mobilization training

— preappointment training

— precommission training

— preentry training

— preexercise training

— premobilization training

— prepackaged training

— primary training

— prime time training

— process-oriented training

— product-oriented training

— progression training

— progressive training

— protective CW training

— radiation training

— Ranger training

— readiness training

— realistic training

— real-world training

— receive training

— reconditioning training

— recovery training

— recruit training

— recurring training

— redeployment training

— redundant training

— refresher training

— rehabilitation training

— reinforcement training

— remedial training

— replacement training

— reserve cycle training

— reserve duty training

— resettlement training

— resident school training

— rifle marksmanship training

— rigorous training

— rotational training

— safety training

— salvage training

— scenario-oriented training

— schedule training

— scheduled training

— security training

— selection training

— shipboard troop training

— side-by-side training

— signal training

— simulator-assisted training

— simulator-based training

— single-service training

— situational training

— ski training

— skill training

— small arms training

— small boat training

— small unit training

— sniper training

— soldiering skills training

— Special Air Service training

— special training

— specialist training

— speciality training

— specialized tactical training

— specialized training

— special-to-arm training

— stationary training

— stereotyped training

— stress inoculation training

— supervisor training

— survival training

— sustainment training

— syllabus training

— systems specific training

— tactical training

— tank common training

— tank gunnery training

— tank skill training

— tank training

— tank-infantry training

— team training

— technical training

— tower training

— toxic warfare training

— trade training

— training area training

— training extension course training

— training with limited resources

— transition training

— transportation training

— troop lift training

— troop training

— truck training

— undergo training

— undergraduate training

— underway training

— ungraded training

— unilateral training

— uniservice training

— unisex basic training

— unit training

— universal military training

— upgrade training

— upgrading training

— urban warfare training

— visual training

— vocational rehabilitation training

— water survival training

— weapons delivery training

— weapons training

— weekend training

— wet-net training

— wetshod assault training

English-Russian military dictionary > training
6 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
7 SCC

1) Общая лексика: плоскоклеточная карцинома, сквамозная карцинома, Site Control Centre (SEIC), СКЦ (Social Cultural Center - социально-культурный центр), ГТК РФ (State Customs Committee)

2) Компьютерная техника: Source Code Club, Space Communication Corporation

3) Медицина: squamous cell carciona

4) Американизм: Safety Checklist Contractor

5) Спорт: Santos Cross Country, Sports Clubs Committee, Sudbury Canoe Club

6) Военный термин: SAGE control center, Scottish Command, Sea Cadet Corps, Security Coordination Committee, Service Component Commander, Standardization and Coordination Committee, Strategic Communications Command, Synchronized Command Control, sector control center, squadron control center, standard commodity classification, stock control center, supervisor control console, supply control center, surveillance coordination center, system control center, Standing Consultative Commission (SALT), (I) Special Coordination Committee (Intelligence)

7) Техника: satellite communications controller, satellite control center, security control center, ship control center, ship control console, short-circuit current, shutdown cooling circulator, single-chip controller, space communications center, spacecraft control center, specification for contract change

8) Сельское хозяйство: Somatic Cell Concentration

9) Шутливое выражение: Southern Comfort Conference

10) Строительство: Self-Compacting Concrete

11) Математика: сильно вполне непрерывный (strongly completely continuous)

12) Автомобильный термин: spark control computer (Chrysler)

13) Оптика: standard cubic centimeter

14) Телекоммуникации: Service Connection Charges

15) Сокращение: SHAPE Command Centre (NATO), Satellite Control Centre, Sector Command Centre, Small Currency Changer, Sorter Control Computer (DBCS, BCS), Space Control Center, Specialized Common Carriers, Student Control Console, SuperComputer Center, System Control Centre, System Control Console (RBCS), single-conductor cable, Stockholm Chamber of Commerce (http://www.sccinstitute.com/uk/Home/), Постоянная консультативная комиссия

16) Университет: Suffolk Community College

17) Физиология: Somatic Cell Count

18) Электроника: Signal Coupling Conductor, Sound Custom Chip, Strategic cell controller

19) Вычислительная техника: Specialized Common Carrier, Storage Connecting Circuit, Serial Communication Controller (FCC, MCC), Serial Controller-Chip (IC), SCSI Controller Commands (SAM), System Configuration Card (Sun), Standards Council of Canada (organization, Canada)

20) Литература: South County Communicators Toastmasters

21) Нефть: sulfide-corrosion cracking, Канадский совет по стандартам (Standards Council of Canada)

22) Онкология: Squamous Cell Carcinoma

23) Транспорт: Safety Concept Car, Shipping Container Code

24) Фирменный знак: Selective Computer Services Company, Skyline Career Challenge, The Small Computer Company

25) СМИ: Strong Cosmic Censorship

26) Деловая лексика: Safety Certificate Contractor, Safety Certificate For Contractors, Set Cost Center

27) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: координатор по рассмотрению безопасности процесса (Safety case coordinator), Shell (Chemical) Company (in Houston)

28) Нефтегазовая техника stress corrosion cracking

29) Образование: Secret Codes Camp

30) Сетевые технологии: switching control center, system communication controller, связной контроллер системы, центр управления коммутацией

31) Автоматика: standardized control chart

32) Робототехника: Serial Communication Controller

33) Сахалин Р: Safety case coordinator

34) Сахалин Ю: secondary control center

35) Химическое оружие: Secondary combustion chamber, Stearns-Catalytic Corporation

36) Расширение файла: MSX picture Bitmap graphics, Serial Communications Controllers, Serial Controller Chip, Synchronous Channel Check (IBM)

37) Нефть и газ: коррозионное растрескивание под напряжением, коррозионное растрескивание трубопроводов под напряжением

38) Логистика: Service Connection Charge (авиапоставка)

39) Электротехника: single-cotton covered, subtransient short-circuit capability

40) Имена и фамилии: Steven Curtis Chapman

41) НАСА: Simple Cycle Checking

42) Программное обеспечение: Soft Computer Consultants, Inc., Strongly Connected Component, The Supreme Court Of Canada

43) Федеральное бюро расследований: Special Coordination Committee

44) AMEX. Security Capital Corporation of Delaware

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > SCC
8 scc

1) Общая лексика: плоскоклеточная карцинома, сквамозная карцинома, Site Control Centre (SEIC), СКЦ (Social Cultural Center - социально-культурный центр), ГТК РФ (State Customs Committee)

2) Компьютерная техника: Source Code Club, Space Communication Corporation

3) Медицина: squamous cell carciona

4) Американизм: Safety Checklist Contractor

5) Спорт: Santos Cross Country, Sports Clubs Committee, Sudbury Canoe Club

6) Военный термин: SAGE control center, Scottish Command, Sea Cadet Corps, Security Coordination Committee, Service Component Commander, Standardization and Coordination Committee, Strategic Communications Command, Synchronized Command Control, sector control center, squadron control center, standard commodity classification, stock control center, supervisor control console, supply control center, surveillance coordination center, system control center, Standing Consultative Commission (SALT), (I) Special Coordination Committee (Intelligence)

7) Техника: satellite communications controller, satellite control center, security control center, ship control center, ship control console, short-circuit current, shutdown cooling circulator, single-chip controller, space communications center, spacecraft control center, specification for contract change

8) Сельское хозяйство: Somatic Cell Concentration

9) Шутливое выражение: Southern Comfort Conference

10) Строительство: Self-Compacting Concrete

11) Математика: сильно вполне непрерывный (strongly completely continuous)

12) Автомобильный термин: spark control computer (Chrysler)

13) Оптика: standard cubic centimeter

14) Телекоммуникации: Service Connection Charges

15) Сокращение: SHAPE Command Centre (NATO), Satellite Control Centre, Sector Command Centre, Small Currency Changer, Sorter Control Computer (DBCS, BCS), Space Control Center, Specialized Common Carriers, Student Control Console, SuperComputer Center, System Control Centre, System Control Console (RBCS), single-conductor cable, Stockholm Chamber of Commerce (http://www.sccinstitute.com/uk/Home/), Постоянная консультативная комиссия

16) Университет: Suffolk Community College

17) Физиология: Somatic Cell Count

18) Электроника: Signal Coupling Conductor, Sound Custom Chip, Strategic cell controller

19) Вычислительная техника: Specialized Common Carrier, Storage Connecting Circuit, Serial Communication Controller (FCC, MCC), Serial Controller-Chip (IC), SCSI Controller Commands (SAM), System Configuration Card (Sun), Standards Council of Canada (organization, Canada)

20) Литература: South County Communicators Toastmasters

21) Нефть: sulfide-corrosion cracking, Канадский совет по стандартам (Standards Council of Canada)

22) Онкология: Squamous Cell Carcinoma

23) Транспорт: Safety Concept Car, Shipping Container Code

24) Фирменный знак: Selective Computer Services Company, Skyline Career Challenge, The Small Computer Company

25) СМИ: Strong Cosmic Censorship

26) Деловая лексика: Safety Certificate Contractor, Safety Certificate For Contractors, Set Cost Center

27) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: координатор по рассмотрению безопасности процесса (Safety case coordinator), Shell (Chemical) Company (in Houston)

28) Нефтегазовая техника stress corrosion cracking

29) Образование: Secret Codes Camp

30) Сетевые технологии: switching control center, system communication controller, связной контроллер системы, центр управления коммутацией

31) Автоматика: standardized control chart

32) Робототехника: Serial Communication Controller

33) Сахалин Р: Safety case coordinator

34) Сахалин Ю: secondary control center

35) Химическое оружие: Secondary combustion chamber, Stearns-Catalytic Corporation

36) Расширение файла: MSX picture Bitmap graphics, Serial Communications Controllers, Serial Controller Chip, Synchronous Channel Check (IBM)

37) Нефть и газ: коррозионное растрескивание под напряжением, коррозионное растрескивание трубопроводов под напряжением

38) Логистика: Service Connection Charge (авиапоставка)

39) Электротехника: single-cotton covered, subtransient short-circuit capability

40) Имена и фамилии: Steven Curtis Chapman

41) НАСА: Simple Cycle Checking

42) Программное обеспечение: Soft Computer Consultants, Inc., Strongly Connected Component, The Supreme Court Of Canada

43) Федеральное бюро расследований: Special Coordination Committee

44) AMEX. Security Capital Corporation of Delaware

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > scc
9 bank

1. n

1) банк

2) фонд; общий запас

- acceptance bank
- accepting bank
- account-holding bank
- advising bank
- affiliated bank
- agency bank
- agent bank
- agricultural bank
- agroindustrial bank
- ailing bank
- all-purpose bank
- associated banks
- authorized bank
- bankers' bank
- bankrupt bank
- big bank
- book-running lead bank
- borrowing bank
- branch bank
- business bank
- card issuing bank
- cash-strapped bank
- central bank
- Central Bank of Russia
- chartered bank
- clearing bank
- closing bank
- collecting bank
- colonial bank
- combined commercial and investment bank
- commercial bank
- confirming bank
- consortium bank
- consumer-credit bank
- continental bank
- cooperative bank
- corporate bank
- correspondent bank
- country bank
- credit bank
- credit-issuing bank
- creditor bank
- custodian bank
- data bank
- dealer bank
- debt-burdened bank
- debt-laden bank
- debtor bank
- deposit bank
- depository bank
- development bank
- discount bank
- domestic bank
- drawee bank
- drive-in bank
- emitting bank
- European Investment Bank
- European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
- exchange bank
- exporter's bank
- Export-Import Bank
- Federal Intermediate Credit Banks
- Federal Land Bank
- federally-chartered bank
- Federal Reserve Banks
- fictitious bank
- first-class bank
- first-tier bank
- foreign bank
- foreign-owned bank
- fringe banks
- full-service bank
- government-owned bank
- guarantor bank
- High Street banks
- importer's bank
- incorporated bank
- independent bank
- industrial bank
- insolvent bank
- intermediary bank
- intermediate bank
- international bank
- International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
- International Investment Bank
- interstate banks
- investment bank
- issuing bank
- joint-stock bank
- joint-stock innovation bank
- labour bank
- land bank
- large exposure bank
- lead bank
- leading bank
- lending bank
- loan bank
- local bank
- long-term credit bank
- loss-making bank
- mediating bank
- medium-sized bank
- major bank
- member bank
- mercantile bank
- merchant bank
- mid-sized bank
- mobile bank
- money market bank
- money trading bank
- mortgage bank
- multifunctional bank
- multinational bank
- multiple office bank
- municipal bank
- mutual credit bank
- mutual savings bank
- national bank
- negotiating bank
- nominated bank
- nonmember bank
- nonpar bank
- nonperforming bank
- notifying bank
- offshore bank
- opening bank
- originating bank
- outsider bank
- overseas bank
- parent bank
- paying bank
- penny bank
- primary bank
- prime bank
- private bank
- private sector banks
- provident bank
- provincial bank
- reference bank
- remitting bank
- reserve bank
- retail bank
- rural bank
- savings bank
- secondary bank
- small bank
- specialized bank
- state bank
- stock exchange bank
- stock savings bank
- third country bank
- thrift bank
- trading bank
- transferring bank
- troubled bank
- trust bank
- trustee bank
- trustee savings bank
- underwriting bank
- venture bank
- wholesale bank
- wildcat bank
- World Bank
- bank for international settlements
- bank of circulation
- bank of deposit
- bank of discount
- Bank of England
- bank of good standing
- bank of issue
- bank of settlements
- bank on a sharing basis
- bank with mixed capital
- authorize a bank
- bail out a bank
- bolster a bank
- deposit money with a bank
- draw money from a bank
- draw on a bank
- establish a bank
- expand a bank
- instruct a bank
- keep in a bank
- merge banks
- nationalize a bank
- pay into a bank
- pay through a bank
- prop up a bank
- run a bank
- set up a bank
- undercut the banks
- bank has gone bankrupt
- bank forfeited its licence
- bank, deprived of its licence
2. v

вносить деньги в банк; держать деньги в банке

- bank at a branch

English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > bank
10 bank

1.

вносить деньги в банк; держать деньги в банке

2.

1) банк

2) фонд; общий запас

•

- accepting bank

- account-holding bank

- advising bank

- affiliate bank

- agency bank

- agent bank

- agricultural bank

- ailing bank

- all-purpose bank

- associated banks

- authorized bank

- bankers' bank

- big bank

- book-running lead bank

- branch bank

- business bank

- card issuing bank

- cash-strapped bank

- central bank

- clearing bank

- closing bank

- collecting bank

- colonial bank

- combined commercial and investment bank

- commercial bank

- confirming bank

- consortium bank

- consumer-credit bank

- continental bank

- cooperative bank

- correspondent bank

- country bank

- credit bank

- credit-issuing bank

- creditor bank

- custodian bank

- data bank

- debt-burdened bank

- debt-laden bank

- deposit bank

- development bank

- discount bank

- domestic bank

- drawee bank

- drive-in bank

- exchange bank

- "exit" bank

- exporter's bank

- failed bank

- federally-chartered bank

- first-class bank

- foreign bank

- fringe banks

- full-service bank

- government-owned bank

- High Street banks

- impaired bank

- importer's bank

- incorporated bank

- industrial bank

- international bank

- intermediate bank

- interstate banks

- investment bank

- issuing bank

- joint stock bank

- land bank

- large exposure bank

- lead bank

- leading bank

- loan bank

- local bank

- loss-making bank

- major bank

- mercantile bank

- mobile bank

- mortgage bank

- multifunctional bank

- multinational bank

- multiple office bank

- municipal bank

- mutual savings bank

- national bank

- negotiating bank

- nominated bank

- nonmember bank

- notifying bank

- opening bank

- originating bank

- overseas bank

- parent bank

- paying bank

- penny bank

- primary bank

- prime bank

- private bank

- private sector banks

- provincial bank

- reference bank

- remitting bank

- reserve bank

- rural bank

- savings bank

- secondary bank

- second-tier bank

- shaky bank

- specialized bank

- state bank

- stock exchange bank

- stock savings bank

- third country bank

- thrift bank

- trading bank

- transferring bank

- troubled bank

- trust bank

- wholesale bank

- wildcat bank

- bank of deposit

- bank of discount

- bank of issue

- bank of good standing

- bank on a sharing basis

- bank with mixed capital

- bail out a bank

- bolster the bank

- deposit money with a bank

- draw on a bank

- pay into a bank

- pay through a bank

- prop up the bank

- run a bank

- undercut the banks

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > bank
11 special

'speʃəl
1. adjective
1) (out of the ordinary; un-usual or exceptional: a special occasion; a special friend.) especial, extraordinario

2) (appointed, arranged, designed etc for a particular purpose: a special messenger; a special tool for drilling holes.) específico, particular

2. noun
(something which is special: There's a special (= a special train) due through here at 5.20.) especial

- specialist
- speciality
- specialize
- specialise
- specialization
- specialisation
- specialized
- specialised
- specially

special adj

1. especial

on today's show we have a very special guest en el programa de hoy tenemos un invitado muy especial

a special pen for writing on glass un rotulador especial para escribir sobre el vidrio

2. extraordinario

a special issue of the magazine un número extraordinario de la revista

special

tr['speʃəl]

adjective

1 (not ordinary or usual) especial; (exceptional) extraordinario,-a

■ for special occasions para ocasiones especiales

■ a special case un caso especial

■ a special friend un amigo íntimo

■ what's so special about today? ¿qué tiene hoy de especial?

■ there's nothing special about him no tiene nada de extraordinario

2 (specific) específico,-a, particular

■ my special interest is... mi interés particular es...

■ a special tool for... una herramienta especial para...

noun

1 (train) tren nombre masculino especial

2 (TV programme) programa nombre masculino especial

3 SMALLAMERICAN ENGLISH/SMALL (special offer) oferta especial

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

on special de oferta

today's special plato del día

special agent agente nombre masulino o femenino secreto,-a

Special Branch SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL Servicio de Seguridad del Estado

special delivery (letter) correo urgente 2 (parcel) entrega inmediata

special edition edición nombre femenino especial, número especial, número extraordinario

special effects efectos nombre masculino plural especiales

special issue extraordinario

special licence dispensa matrimonial

special needs SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL atención nombre femenino diferenciada

special offer oferta (especial)

Special Olympics Juegos Paralímpicos nombre masculino plural

special powers poderes nombre masculino plural extraordinarios

special school escuela especial

special ['spɛʃəl] adj

: especial

nothing special: nada en especial, nada en particular

♦ specially adv

special

adj.

• especial adj.

• extraordinario, -a adj.

n.

• número extraordinario s.m.

• oferta extraordinaria s.f.

• plato del día s.m.

I 'speʃəl
adjective

a) ( exceptional) (before n) <favor/request> especial

a special price — un precio especial or de ocasión

he makes me feel special — me hace sentir muy apreciada

what's so special about Steve? — ¿qué tiene Steve de especial?

b) ( for specific purpose) (before n) <arrangements/fund> especial

special powers — ( Govt) poderes mpl extraordinarios

c) (particular, individual) especial, particular

my special interest is medieval poetry — me interesa especialmente or en especial or en particular la poesía medieval

children with special needs — ( Educ) niños que requieren una atención diferenciada

what are you doing tonight? - nothing special — ¿qué haces esta noche? - nada en especial

II

noun

1) ( train) tren m especial

2) special (constable) ( in UK) civil que en determinadas situaciones cumple tareas de policía

3)

a) ( Culin) plato m especial

the chef's special — especialidad f del día

b) ( special offer) oferta f especial

on special — (AmE) de or en oferta

['speʃǝl]
1. ADJ

1) (=important, exceptional) [occasion, day, permission, price, attention, diet] especial

my special chair — mi silla preferida

• what's so special about that? — y eso ¿qué tiene de especial?

• is there anyone special in your life? — ¿hay alguien especial en tu vida?

• special arrangements will be made for disabled people — se tomarán medidas especiales para las personas discapacitadas

• to take special care of sth — cuidar especialmente de algo

• in special cases — en casos especiales or extraordinarios

• to make a special effort to do sth — esforzarse especialmente or hacer un esfuerzo extra para hacer algo

• you're extra special — tú eres lo mejor de lo mejor

• to make sb feel special — hacer que algn se sienta especial

• my special friend — mi amigo del alma

• his special interest was always music — siempre tuvo especial interés por la música

• there's nothing special about being a journalist — ser periodista no tiene nada de especial

it's nothing special * — no es nada especial, no es nada del otro mundo

• special powers — (Pol) poderes mpl extraordinarios

• I've cooked something special for dinner — he preparado algo especial para cenar

• she's very special to us — la apreciamos mucho

special to that country — exclusivo de ese país

• as a special treat — como algo especial

• to expect special treatment — esperar un trato especial

2) (=specific) especial

a special tool for working leather — una herramienta especial para trabajar el cuero

• have you any special date in mind? — ¿tienes en mente alguna fecha concreta or en particular or en especial?

• is there anything special you would like? — ¿hay algo que quieras en especial?

• I had no special reason for suspecting him — no tenía ningún motivo en especial para sospechar de él

"why do you say that?" - "oh, no special reason" — -¿por qué dices eso? -por nada en especial

• I've no-one special in mind — no tengo en mente a nadie en concreto or en especial

• "what are you doing this weekend?" - " nothing special" — -¿qué haces este fin de semana? -nada (en) especial or nada en particular

• Britain has its own special problems — Gran Bretaña tiene sus propios problemas particulares

3) (Brit)
iro (=strange)
to be a bit special — [person] ser un poco especial

2. N

1) (=train) tren m especial; (TV, Rad) programa m especial; (=newspaper) número m extraordinario

the chef's special, today's special — la especialidad del día

2) (US) * (=special offer) oferta f especial

• to be on special — estar de oferta

3) (Brit) * (=special constable) ciudadano que en determinadas ocasiones realiza funciones de policía

3.

CPD

special adviser N — consejero(-a) m / f de asuntos extraordinarios

special agent N — agente mf especial

Special Air Service N — (Brit) regimiento del ejército británico que se especializa en operaciones clandestinas

Special Branch N — (Brit) Servicio m de Seguridad del Estado

special constable N — (Brit) ciudadano que en ciertas ocasiones realiza funciones de policía

special correspondent N — corresponsal mf especial

special delivery N — correo m exprés

special edition N — edición f especial

special education N — educación f especial

special educational needs NPL — necesidades fpl educativas especiales

special effects NPL — efectos mpl especiales

special interest group N — grupo m de presión que persigue un tema específico

special investigator N — investigador(a) m / f especial

special jury N — jurado m especial

special licence N — (Brit) (Jur) permiso especial para contraer matrimonio sin cumplir los requisitos legales normalmente necesarios

special needs NPL —

children with special needs, special needs children — niños que requieren una atención diferenciada

special offer N — (Comm) oferta f especial, oferta f de ocasión

special school N — colegio m de educación especial

special student N — (US) (at university) oyente mf libre

special subject N — (at school, university) optativa f ; (advanced) asignatura f especializada

* * *

I ['speʃəl]
adjective

a) ( exceptional) (before n) <favor/request> especial

a special price — un precio especial or de ocasión

he makes me feel special — me hace sentir muy apreciada

what's so special about Steve? — ¿qué tiene Steve de especial?

b) ( for specific purpose) (before n) <arrangements/fund> especial

special powers — ( Govt) poderes mpl extraordinarios

c) (particular, individual) especial, particular

my special interest is medieval poetry — me interesa especialmente or en especial or en particular la poesía medieval

children with special needs — ( Educ) niños que requieren una atención diferenciada

what are you doing tonight? - nothing special — ¿qué haces esta noche? - nada en especial

II

noun

1) ( train) tren m especial

2) special (constable) ( in UK) civil que en determinadas situaciones cumple tareas de policía

3)

a) ( Culin) plato m especial

the chef's special — especialidad f del día

b) ( special offer) oferta f especial

on special — (AmE) de or en oferta

English-spanish dictionary > special
12 experience

n

опыт

to accumulate experience — накапливать опыт

to apply the practical experience — применять практический опыт

to exchange experience — обмениваться опытом

to gain experience — приобретать опыт

to gather experience of work — накапливать опыт работы

to have broad experience in overseas affairs — обладать большим опытом внешнеполитической деятельности

to know by / from experience — знать по опыту

to lack experience — недоставать опыта; испытывать недостаток в опыте

to learn by experience — убеждаться на опыте

to make use of the experience — использовать опыт

to obtain experience — приобретать опыт

to pool experience — объединять опыт

to possess special experience of smth — обладать специальным опытом чего-л.

to share experience — обмениваться опытом

to study and generalize the experience — изучать и обобщать опыт

to test by experience — проверять опытным путем

to utilize experience — использовать опыт

- accumulation of experience
- battle experience
- broad exchange of experience
- combat experience
- diplomat with long experience
- experience in diplomacy
- experience in training
- experience of war
- first-hand experience
- foreign experience
- inadequate experience
- instructive experience
- international experience
- little experience
- meaningful experience
- multiform experience
- on the rich experience
- political experience
- practical experience
- production experience
- reciprocal exchange of experience
- relevant work experience
- rich experience
- sharing of experience
- slight experience
- specialized experience
- survey of country experience
- technical experience
- ten-year experience
- transfer of experience
- useful experience
- valuable experience

Politics english-russian dictionary > experience
13 project

1. n
1) проект; план; схема

2) объект строительства

•

to approve a project — одобрять / утверждать проект

to be attached to a project — быть занятым в проекте

to bring a project to the Council — представлять проект Совету

to build an industrial project — строить промышленный объект

to carry out a project — выполнять проект

to consider a project — рассматривать проект

to delay a project — задерживать выполнение проекта

to draw up a project — составлять проект

to earmark money for a project — выделять деньги на проект

to embark on a project — приступать к проекту

to enhance a project — ускорять проект

to estimate / to evaluate a project — оценивать проект

to examine the implementation of the project — проверять выполнение проекта

to execute a project — выполнять проект

to extend a project into the next year — продлевать действие проекта на следующий год

to finalize a project — завершать проект

to implement a project — осуществлять проект / план

to initiate a project — приступать к осуществлению проекта; начинать проект

to invest in a project — вкладывать капитал в проект

to order a project — заказывать проект

to select a project — выбирать проект

to serve with projects — быть занятым в проектах

to sponsor projects — субсидировать / финансировать проекты

to study the feasibility of the project — давать технико-экономическое обоснование проекта

to support a project — поддерживать / финансировать проект

to underwrite a project — обеспечивать финансовую поддержку проекта

- abortion of a project
- ambitious project
- approved project
- building project
- carefully selected projects
- commissioning of projects
- completion of a project
- construction project
- constructional project
- cost sharing project
- defense project
- demonstration project
- description of a project
- development project
- economic project
- estimated cost of the project
- evaluation of industrial projects
- family-planning project
- famine relief project
- feasible project
- field implementation of projects
- field projects
- follow-on project
- global project
- high priority project
- individual project
- industrial project
- infrastructure project
- initial project
- inter-country project
- interregional project
- irrigation project
- joint project
- larger project
- large-scale project
- long-term project
- major project
- Manhattan Project
- medium-sized project
- military project
- model project
- modified version of the project
- multicountry project
- multipurpose project
- national development project
- nonmilitary project
- on-going project
- operational project
- original project
- particular project
- physical feasibility of a project
- pilot project
- pre-investment project
- productive project
- program-assisted projects
- project of the century
- regional project
- research project
- short-term project
- smaller project
- small-scale project
- small-sized project
- sound project
- specialized project
- specific project
- subregional project
- technical assistance project
- technical cooperation project
- transnational project
- turn-key project
- umbrella project
- UNDP-supported projects
- unfair project
- United Nations-operated projects
- unsound project
- viable project 2. v
проектировать, составлять проект; прогнозировать; планировать

Politics english-russian dictionary > project
14 lathe

токарный станок || обрабатывать ( изделие) на токарном станке; обтачивать

to put the lathe in the lowest gear — включать токарный станок при минимальной частоте вращения ( шпинделя);

to set the lathe on a low speed — налаживать токарный станок на низкую частоту вращения ( шпинделя);

lathe with milling option — токарный станок с возможностью фрезерования

- aspheric diamond lathe
- auto lathe
- automatic chucking lathe
- automatic lathe
- automatic tracer lathe
- automatic turning lathe
- automatic turret lathe
- axle journal burnishing lathe
- axle journal roller burnishing lathe
- axle journal turning lathe
- axle lathe
- axle turning lathe
- axle-and-shaft lathe
- backing-off lathe
- ball-turning lathe
- bar lathe
- bar turning lathe
- bar-loaded lathe
- barstock cut-off lathe
- barstock lathe
- bench lathe
- bench top lathe
- bench-mounted lathe
- bench-type lathe
- between-centers lathe
- boring-and-turning lathe
- brake lathe
- bulging lathe
- burnishing lathe
- cam-controlled lathe
- camless automatic lathe
- camless capstan lathe
- camshaft lathe
- cam-turning lathe
- capstan lathe
- car-wheel lathe
- centerdrive lathe
- center-type lathe
- chuck lathe
- chuck-and-bar lathe
- chuck-and-center lathe
- chuck-and-shaft lathe
- chucking lathe
- chucking-and-bar lathe
- chucking-and-center lathe
- CNC lathe with C-axis
- CNC lathe
- CNC-manual lathe
- cone-pulley lathe
- contouring lathe
- conventional lathe
- copying lathe
- copy-turning lathe
- core-turning lathe
- crankpin lathe
- crankshaft lathe
- crankshaft-turning lathe
- cross-feeding turret lathe
- cut-off lathe
- cutting-off lathe
- deep hole boring and turning lathe
- diamond lathe
- diamond tool lathe
- diamond turning lathe
- disk lathe
- double lathe
- double-end lathe
- double-head NC lathe
- double-saddle lathe
- drum lathe
- dual controlled manual/CNC lathe
- dual lathe
- duplicating lathe
- eccentric lathe
- engine lathe
- extension bed lathe
- face-plate lathe
- facing lathe
- fine turning lathe
- flash-removing lathe
- flat bed lathe
- flat turret lathe
- Floturn lathe
- flowing chip lathe
- forge lathe
- forming lathe
- four-axis lathe
- fox lathe
- from-the-bar lathe
- front-loaded lathe
- front-loading lathe
- front-operated lathe
- full-automatic lathe
- gang-tool lathe
- gang-tool type lathe
- gang-tooled lathe
- gang-tooled type lathe
- gang-tooling lathe
- gang-tooling type lathe
- gantry-loaded lathe
- gap bed lathe
- gap lathe
- general purpose lathe
- grinding lathe
- gun-turning lathe
- half-NC lathe
- hand lathe
- hand-controlled lathe
- heavy duty lathe
- high-power CNC lathe
- high-speed lathe
- hollow mandrel lathe
- hydraulic copying lathe
- hydraulic-control lathe
- ingot lathe
- lead-and-feed screw lathe
- live-spindle lathe
- live-spindle turning lathe
- long turning automatic lathe
- machining center lathe
- magazine lathe
- manual center lathe
- manual lathe
- manual-CNC lathe
- manually controlled lathe
- manufacturing lathe
- metal-spinning lathe
- metal-turning lathe
- metal-working lathe
- mill-center lathe
- mill-roll lathe
- mill-turn lathe
- mock-up lathe
- model engineers lathe
- model lathe
- movable spindle automatic lathe
- movable spindle-type automatic lathe
- multicut lathe
- multioperation lathe
- multiple machining lathe
- multiple-spindle automatic lathe
- multispindle automatic lathe
- multitool lathe
- multiturret lathe
- numerical control lathe
- nut lathe
- oil-country lathe
- oil-field lathe
- open turning lathe
- opposed-spindle lathe
- oval-turning lathe
- parallel lathe
- pipe lathe
- piston-turning lathe
- pit lathe
- planishing lathe
- plugboard-controlled lathe
- PNC lathe
- polishing lathe
- portable lathe
- precision lathe
- prior art lathe
- prior art-type lathe
- production lathe
- profile copy lathe
- profile lathe
- profile-turning lathe
- program-controlled lathe
- pulley lathe
- punched-tape controlled lathe
- railway wheel lathe
- ram-type lathe
- ram-type turret lathe
- regular engine lathe
- relief lathe
- relieving lathe
- retrofit CNC lathe
- right angle lathe
- roll lathe
- roller burnishing lathe
- roll-grinding lathe
- roll-turning lathe
- rotor lathe
- roughing lathe
- roughing roll lathe
- saddle-type turret lathe
- scalping lathe
- screw-cutting lathe
- screwing lathe
- screw-polishing lathe
- scroll lathe
- self-acting lathe
- semiautomatic lathe
- sequence controlled turret lathe
- shaft-turning lathe
- shaft-working lathe
- shifting lathe
- short-bed lathe
- single-column vertical turning and boring lathe
- single-housing vertical turning and boring lathe
- single-spindle automatic lathe
- skimming lathe
- slant-bed lathe
- slant-carriage lathe
- slicing lathe
- sliding bed lathe
- sliding bush lathe
- sliding engine lathe
- sliding head lathe
- sliding headstock automatic lathe
- sliding headstock lathe
- sliding-and-screw-cutting lathe
- sliding-and-surfacing lathe
- small-parts lathe
- specialized lathe
- speed lathe
- spinning lathe
- squaring-up lathe
- standard lathe
- steel-mill roll lathe
- stud lathe
- super precision lathe
- superspeed lathe
- surface grinding lathe
- surfacing lathe
- Swiss CNC lathe
- Swiss-type automatic lathe
- Swiss-type lathe
- Swiss-type sliding headstock lathe
- taper-turning lathe
- tap-making lathe
- thread-cutting lathe
- threading lathe
- T-lathe
- toolchanger lathe
- toolmaker's lathe
- toolroom lathe
- tracer-contouring lathe
- tracer-turning lathe
- training lathe
- triple-turret lathe
- tubing cut-off lathe
- turn-bore and cut-off lathe
- turning lathe
- turning-and-boring lathe
- turret lathe
- twin opposed spindle lathe
- twin-spindle lathe
- twin-turret lathe
- ultraprecision lathe
- universal lathe
- unmanned lathe
- vehicle-mounted lathe
- vertical lathe with two columns
- vertical lathe
- vertical turning and boring lathe
- vertical turret lathe
- vibration lathe
- vibration machining lathe
- watchmaker's lathe
- welding lathe
- wheel lathe
- wheel turning lathe
- wheelset lathe
- wheelset-type profiling lathe
- wire lathe
- wire-feed-type lathe
- worm-threading lathe

English-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > lathe
15 bank

1) банк; кредитное учреждение; банкирский дом || вносить деньги в банк; держать деньги в банке; заниматься банковским делом

2) фонд, запас

3) касса

- bank of circulation

- bank of issue

- acceptance bank

- account-holding bank

- advising bank

- black bank

- black-controlled bank

- borrower's bank

- branch bank

- buffer bank

- business bank

- card-issuing bank

- central reserve city banks

- clearing bank

- clearing member bank

- collecting bank

- Comecon banks

- continental bank

- correspondent bank

- country bank

- credit bank

- credit-issuing bank

- creditor bank

- debtor bank

- department store bank

- deposit bank

- discount bank

- drive-in bank

- exchange bank

- first-generation bank

- Gulf bank

- incorporated bank

- industrial bank

- in-house bank

- in-store bank

- insured bank

- investment bank

- issuing bank

- joint stock bank

- joint stock land bank

- labor bank

- land banks

- major city bank

- member bank

- member bank of the syndicate

- merchant bank

- mobile bank

- money center bank

- money trading bank

- monopoly bank

- Morris plan bank

- mortgage bank

- multinational bank

- multiple office bank

- mutual savings bank

- national bank

- nonbank bank

- nonmember bank

- nonpar bank

- notifying bank

- opening bank

- originating bank

- out-of-town bank

- overseas bank

- parent bank

- payee's bank

- payer's bank

- paying bank

- penny banks

- piggy bank

- presenting bank

- primary bank

- private bank

- problem bank

- processing bank

- remitting bank

- reporting member bank

- reserve bank

- retail bank

- savings bank

- school savings bank

- single-office bank

- soil bank

- specialized bank

- state bank

- stock exchange bank

- stock savings bank

- storefront bank

- trading bank

- trustee savings bank

- unit bank

- wildcat banks

Англо-русский словарь по экономике и финансам > bank
16 fund

1. n

1) запас, резерв, фонд

2) pl фонды, денежные средства

3) государственные ценные бумаги

4) сберегательная или инвестиционная организация

- accumulation fund
- adequate funds
- actual fund
- additional funds
- advisory funds
- aggressive growth fund
- amortization fund
- authorized fund
- available funds
- balanced fund
- bank funds
- basic fund
- bond fund
- bond sinking fund
- bonus fund
- borrowed funds
- budgetary funds
- burial fund
- buy-out fund
- capital fund
- capital redemption reserve fund
- cash fund
- charter fund
- claims settlement fund
- clearing house funds
- clone fund
- closed fund
- closed-end investment funds
- common stock fund
- common trust fund
- compensation fund
- consolidated fund
- consumption fund
- contingency funds
- contingent fund
- contract fund
- co-op share fund
- corporate income fund
- corporate liquid fund
- country fund
- cover funds
- credit funds
- currency fund
- debt fund
- debt funds
- deferred fund
- deposit funds
- depreciation fund
- development fund
- discretionary fund
- diversified common stock fund
- diversified common trust fund
- dividend reserve fund
- economic incentive fund
- economic stimulation fund
- emergency funds
- emergency reserve fund
- emerging markets growth fund
- employee benefit trust fund
- endowment fund
- equalization fund
- equalized fund
- equity funds
- equity common trust fund
- equity income fund
- escrow funds
- exchange stabilization fund
- expense fund
- extra funds
- extra-budgetary funds
- federal fund
- federal funds
- federal reserve fund
- federal small business support fund
- fiduciary funds
- financial fund
- financing funds
- floating funds
- floating funds in circulation
- footloose funds
- foreign funds
- fresh funds
- front-end load fund
- frozen funds
- general fund
- go-go fund
- gold settlement fund
- good funds
- government funds
- growth fund
- growth and income fund
- guarantee fund
- hard-currency funds
- hedge fund
- high-quality fund
- house funds
- illiquid funds
- imprest fund
- income fund
- income mutual fund
- indemnification fund
- indivisible funds
- inducement fund
- in-house funds
- insufficient funds
- insurance fund
- interest-sensitive funds
- internal funds
- International Monetary Fund
- investment funds
- joint fund
- labour fund
- lease fund
- lendable funds
- liquid fund
- liquid funds
- liquid foreign exchange funds
- liquid reserve fund
- liquidity fund
- load mutual fund
- loan fund
- loan funds
- loanable funds
- loan redemption fund
- local fund
- long-term funds
- low-cost funds
- material incentives fund
- maximum capital gain mutual fund
- monetary fund
- money market fund
- money market mutual fund
- mutual fund
- mutual mortgage insurance fund
- no-load fund
- off-budget fund
- offshore fund
- open-end investment fund
- open share fund
- outside funds
- overnight funds
- payroll fund
- pension fund
- performance fund
- petty cash fund
- policy reserve fund
- private fund
- private funds
- professional health insurance fund
- proprietary fund
- provident fund
- public funds
- public consumption funds
- public off-budget funds
- purchase fund
- real estate fund
- redemption fund
- registered fund
- released fund
- relief fund
- renewal fund
- research-and-development fund
- reserve funds
- retention funds
- revaluation rerserve fund
- revolving fund
- sector-specified fund
- share fund
- shareholders' fund
- short-term funds
- short-term bond fund
- sinking fund
- slush fund
- social consumption funds
- social security fund
- soft loan fund
- specialized fund
- specialty fund
- special-purpose fund
- special reserve fund
- stabilization fund
- standards of emergency funds
- standby funds
- state funds
- statutory fund
- sufficient funds
- superannuation fund
- surplus funds
- tax-exempt bond fund
- tied-up funds
- trust fund
- uncollected funds
- unit fund
- unpaid liability funds
- utility or other-enterprise fund
- volatile funds
- vulture fund
- wages fund
- welfare fund
- working capital fund
- working time fund
- fund for amortization
- fund for development of production
- fund for expansion of production
- fund for the support of small enterprise
- fund for technological improvement
- funds of a bank
- funds of an enterprise
- fund of funds
- administer a fund
- advance funds
- allocate funds
- appropriate funds
- attract funds
- be pressed for funds
- borrow funds
- call upon the fund
- commit the funds
- convert funds to another purpose
- create funds
- deposit funds
- draw money from the fund
- earmark funds
- establish a fund
- extend funds
- freeze funds
- generate funds
- grant funds
- invest funds
- launch a hedge fund
- make funds available
- manage a fund
- misspend federal funds
- obtain funds
- open a fund
- pay out funds
- provide funds
- raise funds
- redistribute funds
- release funds
- repatriate funds
- set aside funds
- set up a fund
- streamline a fund
- tie up funds
- transfer funds
- withdraw funds
2. v

1) вкладывать капитал в ценные бумаги

2) финансировать, фондировать

- fund through taxation

English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > fund
17 branch

[braːntʃ]
n

1) ветка (у растений), ветвь, сук

The branches were loaded with fruit (with snow). — Ветви сгибались под тяжестью плодов (снега).

There are several new branches on the tree this year. — Дерево в этом году дало несколько новых побегов.

The trees are sending fouth branches. — На деревьях появляются новые побеги.

The wind blew several branches off the tree. — Несколько веток было сорвано/сломано ветром.

The branches were loaded down with fruit. — Ветки сгибались под тяжестью плодов.

to hold out the olive branch — ◊ идти с миром/делать мирные предложения/пытаться уладить дело миром

- interwining branches
- shapely branch
- strong branch
- wide branch
- drooping branches
- flowery branches
- flowering branches
- knotly branches
- broken branches
- overhanging branches
- vine branch
- tree with shapely branches
- in branches
- bend a branch
- break branchs
- break off a branch
- clip branches
- crash through branches
- cut off branches
- gather dead branches
- hide among the branches
- leap from branch to branch
- pirch on a branch
- trim branches
- branches sway in the wind
- branches break
- branches shatter into pieces
2) ответвление

This is only a branch of the river. — Это только рукав реки.

- branch of a road
- branch of a railway
- branch of a long line of mountains
- branches of a candlestick
- branches of a deer's antlers
3) отрасль, филиал, отделение

The branch was closed down. — Отделение было закрыто. /Филиал был закрыт.

This branch flourishes. — Это отделение процветает.

- independent branch
- local branch
- Japanese branch
- specialized branch
- overseas branch
- branch post-office
- branch Bank
- important branch of industry
- important branch of science
- important branch of knowledge
- branch of business
- one of the most neglected branches of psychology
- important branch of instruction in school
- in various branches of learning
- consist of branches
- have branches in all parts of the country
- open a London branch
- separate into branches
- specialize in some branch
4) вид, линия родства

English is a branch of the Germanic family of languages. — Английский принадлежит к германским языкам

- direct branch of a family
- two branches of the English race

English-Russian combinatory dictionary > branch
18 Clark, Edward

SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors

[br]

fl. 1850s New York State, USA

[br]

American co-developer of mass-production techniques at the Singer sewing machine factory.

[br]

Born in upstate New York, where his father was a small manufacturer, Edward Clark attended college at Williams and graduated in 1831. He became a lawyer in New York City and from then on lived either in the city or on his rural estate near Cooperstown in upstate New York. After a series of share manipulations, Clark acquired a one-third interest in Isaac M. Singer's company. They soon bought out one of Singer's earlier partners, G.B.Zeiber, and in 1851, under the name of I.M.Singer \& Co., they set up a permanent sewing machine business with headquarters in New York.

The success of their firm initially rested on marketing. Clark introduced door-to-door sales-people and hire-purchase for their sewing machines in 1856 ($50 cash down, or $100 with a cash payment of $5 and $3 a month thereafter). He also trained women to demonstrate to potential customers the capabilities of the Singer sewing machine. At first their sewing machines continued to be made in the traditional way, with the parts fitted together by skilled workers through hand filing and shaping so that the parts would fit only onto one machine. This resembled European practice rather than the American system of manufacture that had been pioneered in the armouries in that country. In 1856 Singer brought out their first machine intended exclusively for home use, and at the same time manufacturing capacity was improved. Through increased sales, a new factory was built in 1858–9 on Mott Street, New York, but it soon became inadequate to meet demand.

In 1863 the Singer company was incorporated as the Singer Manufacturing Co. and began to modernize its production methods with special jigs and fixtures to help ensure uniformity. More and more specialized machinery was built for making the parts. By 1880 the factory, then at Elizabethport, New Jersey, was jammed with automatic and semi-automatic machine tools. In 1882 the factory was producing sewing machines with fully interchangeable parts that did not require hand fitting in assembly. Production rose from 810 machines in 1853 to half a million in 1880. A new family model was introduced in 1881. Clark had succeeded Singer, who died in 1875, as President of the company, but he retired in 1882 after he had seen through the change to mass production.

[br]

Further Reading

National Cyclopaedia of American Biography.

D.A.Hounshell, 1984, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932. The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore (a thorough account of Clark's role in the development of Singer's factories).

F.B.Jewell, 1975, Veteran Sewing Machines. A Collector's Guide, Newton Abbot.

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Clark, Edward

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

Перевод: с английского на все языки

specialized country

См. также в других словарях:

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

Перевод: с английского на все языки

specialized country

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